What Are Polyphenols?
Polyphenols are a diverse class of naturally occurring compounds found in plants, that are increasingly being shown to be vital nutrients for health and longevity. Historically they have been regarded as antioxidants, but more recent research has revealed a much wider range of health benefits. These include effects that enhance the body’s own responses to oxidative and metabolic stress, anti-inflammatory actions, cardiovascular benefits, modulation of the microbiome and anti-virial / antibacterial action.(1)
Natural polyphenols are produced by plants as defence compounds, protecting them from ultraviolet (UV) radiation, combatting pathogens by acting as antimicrobial and antioxidant agents and deterring herbivores through their bitter taste. They also aid in the repair of plant structural tissue and the brightly coloured pigments that attract pollinators and aid seed dispersal.(2)There are thousands of different polyphenols, classified into different classes and sub-classes based on their chemical structures. (see table below)
History of Polyphenols
The use of polyphenol-rich plants in human diets dates back thousands of years with many civilisations using them for their health benefits. Green tea, rich in catechins, has been a staple in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries, whilst Hippocrates, the ancient Greek father of modern medicine recommended red wine and olive oil for several health conditions. In north American, Polyphenol rich aronia berries were historically used by the Native American peoples for treating colds and preserving foods during the winter(3)
Modern scientific study of polyphenols began in the early 19th century with the identification of tannins in oak that were used for processing leather and aging wine. By the mid-20th century, advances in analytical chemistry enabled the isolation of individual polyphenols and allowed for clinical studies into their physiological effects and epidemiological studies into their health benefits at a population level. These studies provided strong evidence linking polyphenol consumption to reductions in chronic disease and improvements in longevity. At the same time ‘The Mediterranean Diet’ a diet that emphasizes the consumption of polyphenol-rich foods, including fruits, vegetables, nuts, legumes, olive oil, and red wine has been demonstrated to have strong benefits for cardiovascular health and longevity (4). These benefits are closely associated with the diet’s high polyphenol content( 5–7).
Based on these very encouraging findings, over the past 10 years there has been an explosion of research into polyphenols with the huge advances in understanding of how these molecules interact and modify metabolism to promote health and vitality. There is still a great deal to be learnt but a compelling picture of profound benefits of polyphenols on multiple aspects of health is emerging.(8) In my opinion, it will only be a matter of time before dietary guidelines and recommended daily intakes of these compounds emerge. (9)
Physiological Functions of Polyphenols
Polyphenols modify key processes at the very core of metabolism. These are all interconnected and so it is difficult to disentangle the separate mechanisms and effects. To try to simplify this, I have divided the actions of polyphenols into 6 different areas but please note that these are all connected, and the discussion below is not comprehensive.
1. Antioxidant Protection
Polyphenols protect your body from damage by free radicals through two main mechanisms. Firstly, they directly detoxify free radicals converting them into harmless substances such as oxygen and water. This directly protects cellular structure such as DNA, membranes and even the fats being transported around the body in the blood from oxidative damage. (10–12) In addition, they act indirectly by up regulating your own antioxidant defences, through a process called hormesis. (13,14) This is a profound mechanism that greatly amplifies the action of polyphenols above and beyond that of usual antioxidants. It also encourages adaptation and longer lasting improvements in antioxidant defences of the type associated with physical exercise.(15) In coming posts I will touch frequently on this vital mechanism.
2. Anti-Inflammatory Effects
Polyphenols also regulate inflammation, reducing chronic inflammation, the uncontrolled inflammation that characterises many chronic diseases and the aging process. Chronic inflammatory diseases are now recognised as the most significant cause of death in the world today, with more than 50% of all deaths being attributable to inflammation-related diseases such as ischemic heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and auto-immune and neurodegenerative conditions.(16)
Polyphenols reduce chronic inflammation by supressing the production of pro-inflammatory messenger molecules called cytokines (e.g. IL-6 and TNF-α) whilst promoting the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10. (13,15,17) This has multiple benefits, preventing the body from damage caused by disease, toxins and aging and improving recovery after injury and intensive sport.
3. Metabolic Health
Polyphenols have multiple actions that improve metabolic health. The most important of these are their ability to improve glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity and the positive effects that they have on fat metabolism.
Polyphenols regulate blood glucose by slowing the absorption of glucose into the blood; accelerating the uptake of glucose out of the blood and into muscles; and reducing the overall amount of glucose absorbed after a standard glucose load.(18) Glucose is the main energy source for the body and maintaining an optimum blood glucose balance is of fundamental importance for metabolic health and longevity. In doing this, polyphenols have multiple critical benefits:
- Reducing the development of insulin resistance, the root cause of diabetes and metabolic syndrome the metabolic dysfunction behind much chronic illness.
- Decreasing the production of damaging free radicals in the body.
- Reducing the generation of inflammatory cytokines thereby reducing levels of chronic inflammation.
- Decreasing the production of Advanced Glycation End Products (AGEs) highly damaging molecules that result from glucose binding to tissues in the body..
- Reducing absolute levels of glucose absorption allowing glucose to enter the large intestine where it can promote the growth of beneficial gut bacteria and the production of beneficial short chain fatty acids. This is also useful for weight control reducing the total amount of glucose absorbed.
The Impact of Polyphenols on Blood Glucose
The impact of polyphenols on blood glucose is substantial. Yamane et al. demonstrated that Aronia juice reduces the blood glucose peak after eating a standard 200g carbohydrate load by about 50% and the glycaemic load by even more, about 2/3s (19)
When combined with a healthier diet, the magnitude of these effects is sufficient to not only prevent metabolic syndrome but even to reverse it and type 2 diabetes in a high proportion of people. Recently there has been huge hype about the multiple health benefits of Ozempic® and other similar drugs. Whilst it is true that the research shows that these drugs have huge potential health benefits, I can’t help but think people and the world would be better served if the same hype and research resources were put into the research of natural, safe solutions.
For more information on how polyphenols improve glucose metabolism please see a future article on the effect of polyphenols on glucose metabolism.
Improved Fat (lipid) Metabolism
In addition to their indirect effects on lipid metabolism through improving glucose metabolism, polyphenols also directly improve how your body metabolises fat and reduce the risks of cardiovascular disease. This is critically important as Dyslipidaemia, an increase in “bad” blood fasts mainly Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) and a reduction in “good” blood fats – so-called High Density Lipoprotein (HDL), can cause cholesterol to accumulate in artery walls, damaging them and gradually blocking them. This is the cause of cardiovascular disease and results in heart attacks and strokes. It is the biggest source of mortality in the world.(20)
Polyphenol intake has been shown to both reduce the numbers of the LDL (bad cholesterol) particles present in the blood and to increase their size and stability, making them less likely to stick to and damage blood vessels, the pathology behind cardiovascular disease.(21) Polyphenols have also been shown to increase the amount of protective, LDL (good cholesterol) particles present in the blood, that is again associated with a reduced risk of cardio vascular (22) .
Lower Blood Pressure
Improving blood lipid profiles and reducing cardiovascular disease itself maintains arterial flexibility and in so doing, helps to keep blood pressure low. In addition, polyphenols directly relax blood vessels improving blood flow and reducing blood pressure. They do this mainly by increasing the levels of Nitric Oxide (NO) in the blood vessels walls. Nitric Oxide is a vasodilator that relaxes blood vessels, reducing vascular resistance, improving blood flow and lowering blood pressure. This is important for general health and in sports performance, where this action helps to increase the supply of blood and therefore oxygen to working muscle thereby improving performance.
4. Gut Microbiome and Gut Health
Over the past 20 years, research has shown that the gut microbiome plays a critical role in the maintenance of both mental and physical health. Its importance extends far beyond the gut and touches almost every system and organ in the body. In addition, the important role of polyphenols in the development and maintenance of a healthy microbiome and in gut health, has become clear. Polyphenols nourishes the microbes in the gut microbiome, both directly providing them with nutrition and indirect increasing the passage of some carbohydrates into the large intestine (where most of the bugs of the microbiome live). Feeding the microbes with polyphenols and carbohydrates encourages the proliferation of beneficial bacteria and inhibits the growth of damaging, pathogenic bacteria. The beneficial bacteria then produce positive secondary metabolites such as short chain fatty acids (SCFA) from the polyphenols and carbohydrates they consume. SCFAs are very beneficial molecules indeed: they feed the cells that line the gut and encourage them to secrete mucin that protects the gut from toxins and harmful bacteria; they are anti-inflammatory both in the gut and throughout the body; they stimulate the secretion of GLP-1 that improves glucose metabolism and reduces appetite; they communicate with gut nerve cells; they pass into the brain where they reduce inflammation and improve mood and energy levels; and they help increases the efficiency of the immune system, improving resistance to disease and decreasing the risk of immune overactivation and autoimmune disorders. That’s not even a complete list!
There is a two-way relationship between the microbiome and polyphenols. Polyphenols strengthen the gut microbiome as described above. In addition, the microbiome bugs that consume the polyphenols, generate many beneficial bioactive metabolites. This is a new area of research, and the complex interactions are only very partially but what is already clear is that many of these secondary metabolites then go on to be absorbed and exert direct beneficial effects throughout the body.(23–27)
5. Antibacterial and Antiviral Effects
Polyphenols have a strong antibacterial and antiviral properties. They can directly kill some bacteria and viruses, inhibit their growth or the reproduction of others and crucially, can disrupt the adherence mechanisms that bacteria and viruses use to enter the body and the cells. All these mechanisms work together to strengthen the body’s defences against infections, reduce the risk of disease transmission, and support overall immune health.(28–31)
6. Neuroprotection
Finally, polyphenols protect the brain in multiple ways, acting both directly on brain cells and indirectly through their systemic effects on metabolism. Some type of polyphenols such as anthocyanins and flavanols, cross the blood brain barrier provide antioxidant and anti-inflammatory protection for brain tissue. Indirectly, the ability of polyphenols to improve metabolic health (glucose, lipid and blood pressure control), reduce systemic inflammation and protect membranes from oxidative damage all contribute to improved brain health. The protection they provide to the lining of the cerebral blood vessels (the so-called blood brain barrier) is vital and research is now pointing the critical importance of the maintenance and protection of this barrier to the extent that dementia such as Alzheimer’s disease is now being referred to as Type 3 diabetes.
In addition to the above, polyphenols have also been shown to increase levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factors (BDNFs). (32) BDNFs play an essential role in brain and metabolic health and higher concentrations are associated with improved cognitive performance.
Summary
This introduction to polyphenols has of necessity been brief and somewhat superficial only touching on some of the many attributes, effects and benefits of polyphenols and missing some out completely. However, I hope that it’s been helpful to give you an overview to what is a very large body of research and information, illustrating the huge potential that these compounds have to improve health, vitality and longevity. In later articles I will go into more detail on the various topics I touched on here.
10 Jan, 2025 - Dr. Steve Collins
1. Denev PN, Kratchanov CG, Ciz M, Lojek A, Kratchanova MG. Bioavailability and Antioxidant Activity of Black Chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) Polyphenols: In vitro and in vivo Evidences and Possible Mechanisms of Action: A Review. Vol. 11, Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 2012. p. 471–89.
2.Manach C, Scalbert A, Morand C, Rémésy C, Jiménez L. Polyphenols: food sources and bioavailability 1,2 [Internet]. Vol. 79, Am J Clin Nutr. 2004. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/79/5/727/4690182
3. Kokotkiewicz A, Jaremicz Z, Luczkiewicz M. Aronia plants: a review of traditional use, biological activities, and perspectives for modern medicine. Vol. 13, Journal of medicinal food. 2010. p. 255–69.
4. Estruch R, Ros E, Salas-Salvadó J, Covas MI, Corella D, Arós F, et al. Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease with a Mediterranean Diet Supplemented with Extra-Virgin Olive Oil or Nuts. New England Journal of Medicine [Internet]. 2018 Jun 21 [cited 2025 Jan 11];378(25). Available from: https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1800389
5. Castro-Barquero S, Tresserra-Rimbau A, Vitelli-Storelli F, Doménech M, Salas-Salvadó J, Martín-Sánchez V, et al. Dietary Polyphenol Intake is Associated with HDL-Cholesterol and A Better Profile of other Components of the Metabolic Syndrome: A PREDIMED-Plus Sub-Study. Nutrients [Internet]. 2020 Mar 1 [cited 2023 Oct 3];12(3):689. Available from: /pmc/articles/PMC7146338/
6. Tresserra-Rimbau A, Rimm EB, Medina-Remón A, Martínez-González MA, de la Torre R, Corella D, et al. Inverse association between habitual polyphenol intake and incidence of cardiovascular events in the PREDIMED study. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases. 2014;24(6):639–47.
7. Tresserra-Rimbau A, Rimm EB, Medina-Remón A, Martínez-González MA, López-Sabater C, Covas MI, et al. Polyphenol intake and mortality risk: a re-analysis of the PREDIMED trial. BMC Med [Internet]. 2014;12(77). Available from: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7015/12/77
8. Rudrapal M, Rakshit G, Singh RP, Garse S, Khan J, Chakraborty S. Dietary Polyphenols: Review on Chemistry/Sources, Bioavailability/Metabolism, Antioxidant Effects, and Their Role in Disease Management. Antioxidants 2024, Vol 13, Page 429 [Internet]. 2024 Mar 30 [cited 2025 Jan 11];13(4):429. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox13040429
9. Williamson G, Holst B. Dietary reference intake (DRI) value for dietary polyphenols: Are we heading in the right direction? British Journal of Nutrition. 2008 Jun;99(SUPPL. 3).
10. Serino A, Salazar G. Protective role of polyphenols against vascular inflammation, aging and cardiovascular disease. Vol. 11, Nutrients. MDPI AG; 2019.
11. Petrovic S, Arsic A, Glibetic M, Cikiriz N, Jakovljevic V, Vucic V. The effects of polyphenol-rich chokeberry juice on fatty acid profiles and lipid peroxidation of active handball players: Results from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 2016 Apr 12;94(10):1058–63.
12. Kardum N, Milovanović B, Šavikin K, Zdunić G, Mutavdžin S, Gligorijević T, et al. Beneficial Effects of Polyphenol-Rich Chokeberry Juice Consumption on Blood Pressure Level and Lipid Status in Hypertensive Subjects. J Med Food. 2015 Nov 1;18(11):1231–8.
Platonova EY, Shaposhnikov M V., Lee HY, Lee JH, Min KJ, Moskalev A. Black chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) extracts in terms of geroprotector criteria. Vol. 114, Trends in Food Science and Technology. Elsevier Ltd; 2021. p. 570–84.
14. Moskaug JØ, Carlsen H, Myhrstad MC, Blomhoff R. Polyphenols and glutathione synthesis regulation 1-4. AJCN [Internet]. 2005;81(Suppl):277S-283S. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/81/1/277S/4607567
15. Stankiewicz B, Cieślicka M, Mieszkowski J, Kochanowicz A, Niespodziński B, Szwarc A, et al. Effect of Supplementation with Black Chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) Extract on Inflammatory Status and Selected Markers of Iron Metabolism in Young Football Players: A Randomized Double-Blind Trial. Nutrients 2023, Vol 15, Page 975 [Internet]. 2023 Feb 15 [cited 2023 Mar 13];15(4):975. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/15/4/975/htm
16. Furman D, Campisi J, Verdin E, Carrera-Bastos P, Targ S, Franceschi C, et al. Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span. Nat Med. 2019 Dec 1;25(12):1822–32.
17. Skarpańska-Stejnborn A, Basta P, Sadowska J, Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak Ł. Effect of supplementation with chokeberry juice on the inflammatory status and markers of iron metabolism in rowers. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2014 Oct 1;11(1):1–10.
18. Kim YA, Keogh JB, Clifton PM. Polyphenols and Glycemic Control. Nutrients [Internet]. 2016 Jan 5 [cited 2023 Mar 30];8(1). Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26742071/
19. Yamane T, Kozuka M, Wada-Yoneta M, Sakamoto T, Nakagaki T, Nakano Y, et al. Aronia juice suppresses the elevation of postprandial blood glucose levels in adult healthy Japanese. Clin Nutr Exp. 2017 Apr 1;12:20–6.
20. WHO. https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/mortality-and-global-health-estimates/ghe-leading-causes-of-death. 2023. WHO Global health estimates: Leading causes of death.
21. Hernáez Á, Remaley AT, Farràs M, Fernández-Castillejo S, Subirana I, Schröder H, et al. Olive oil polyphenols decrease LDL concentrations and LDL atherogenicity in men in a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Nutrition [Internet]. 2015 Aug 1 [cited 2025 Jan 11];145(8):1692–7. Available from: http://jn.nutrition.org/article/S0022316622088113/fulltext
22. Tasic N, Jakovljevic VLJ, Mitrovic M, Djindjic B, Tasic D, Dragisic D, et al. Black chokeberry Aronia melanocarpa extract reduces blood pressure, glycemia and lipid profile in patients with metabolic syndrome: a prospective controlled trial. Mol Cell Biochem. 2021 Jul 1;476(7):2663–73.
23. Istas G, Wood E, Le Sayec M, Rawlings C, Yoon J, Dandavate V, et al. Effects of aronia berry (poly)phenols on vascular function and gut microbiota: A double-blind randomized controlled trial in adult men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2019 Aug 1;110(2):316–29.
24. Mithul Aravind S, Wichienchot S, Tsao R, Ramakrishnan S, Chakkaravarthi S. Role of dietary polyphenols on gut microbiota, their metabolites and health benefits. Vol. 142, Food Research International. Elsevier Ltd; 2021.
25. 1. Denev PN, Kratchanov CG, Ciz M, Lojek A, Kratchanova MG. Bioavailability and Antioxidant Activity of Black Chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) Polyphenols: In vitro and in vivo Evidences and Possible Mechanisms of Action: A Review. Vol. 11, Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 2012. p. 471–89.
2. Manach C, Scalbert A, Morand C, Rémésy C, Jiménez L. Polyphenols: food sources and bioavailability 1,2 [Internet]. Vol. 79, Am J Clin Nutr. 2004. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/79/5/727/4690182
3. Kokotkiewicz A, Jaremicz Z, Luczkiewicz M. Aronia plants: a review of traditional use, biological activities, and perspectives for modern medicine. Vol. 13, Journal of medicinal food. 2010. p. 255–69.
4. Estruch R, Ros E, Salas-Salvadó J, Covas MI, Corella D, Arós F, et al. Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease with a Mediterranean Diet Supplemented with Extra-Virgin Olive Oil or Nuts. New England Journal of Medicine [Internet]. 2018 Jun 21 [cited 2025 Jan 11];378(25). Available from: https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1800389
5. Castro-Barquero S, Tresserra-Rimbau A, Vitelli-Storelli F, Doménech M, Salas-Salvadó J, Martín-Sánchez V, et al. Dietary Polyphenol Intake is Associated with HDL-Cholesterol and A Better Profile of other Components of the Metabolic Syndrome: A PREDIMED-Plus Sub-Study. Nutrients [Internet]. 2020 Mar 1 [cited 2023 Oct 3];12(3):689. Available from: /pmc/articles/PMC7146338/
6. Tresserra-Rimbau A, Rimm EB, Medina-Remón A, Martínez-González MA, de la Torre R, Corella D, et al. Inverse association between habitual polyphenol intake and incidence of cardiovascular events in the PREDIMED study. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases. 2014;24(6):639–47.
7. Tresserra-Rimbau A, Rimm EB, Medina-Remón A, Martínez-González MA, López-Sabater C, Covas MI, et al. Polyphenol intake and mortality risk: a re-analysis of the PREDIMED trial. BMC Med [Internet]. 2014;12(77). Available from: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7015/12/77
8. Rudrapal M, Rakshit G, Singh RP, Garse S, Khan J, Chakraborty S. Dietary Polyphenols: Review on Chemistry/Sources, Bioavailability/Metabolism, Antioxidant Effects, and Their Role in Disease Management. Antioxidants 2024, Vol 13, Page 429 [Internet]. 2024 Mar 30 [cited 2025 Jan 11];13(4):429. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox13040429
9. Williamson G, Holst B. Dietary reference intake (DRI) value for dietary polyphenols: Are we heading in the right direction? British Journal of Nutrition. 2008 Jun;99(SUPPL. 3).
10. Serino A, Salazar G. Protective role of polyphenols against vascular inflammation, aging and cardiovascular disease. Vol. 11, Nutrients. MDPI AG; 2019.
11. Petrovic S, Arsic A, Glibetic M, Cikiriz N, Jakovljevic V, Vucic V. The effects of polyphenol-rich chokeberry juice on fatty acid profiles and lipid peroxidation of active handball players: Results from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 2016 Apr 12;94(10):1058–63.
12. Kardum N, Milovanović B, Šavikin K, Zdunić G, Mutavdžin S, Gligorijević T, et al. Beneficial Effects of Polyphenol-Rich Chokeberry Juice Consumption on Blood Pressure Level and Lipid Status in Hypertensive Subjects. J Med Food. 2015 Nov 1;18(11):1231–8.
13. Platonova EY, Shaposhnikov M V., Lee HY, Lee JH, Min KJ, Moskalev A. Black chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) extracts in terms of geroprotector criteria. Vol. 114, Trends in Food Science and Technology. Elsevier Ltd; 2021. p. 570–84.
14. Moskaug JØ, Carlsen H, Myhrstad MC, Blomhoff R. Polyphenols and glutathione synthesis regulation 1-4. AJCN [Internet]. 2005;81(Suppl):277S-283S. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/81/1/277S/4607567
15. Stankiewicz B, Cieślicka M, Mieszkowski J, Kochanowicz A, Niespodziński B, Szwarc A, et al. Effect of Supplementation with Black Chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) Extract on Inflammatory Status and Selected Markers of Iron Metabolism in Young Football Players: A Randomized Double-Blind Trial. Nutrients 2023, Vol 15, Page 975 [Internet]. 2023 Feb 15 [cited 2023 Mar 13];15(4):975. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/15/4/975/htm
16. Furman D, Campisi J, Verdin E, Carrera-Bastos P, Targ S, Franceschi C, et al. Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span. Nat Med. 2019 Dec 1;25(12):1822–32.
17. Skarpańska-Stejnborn A, Basta P, Sadowska J, Pilaczyńska-Szcześniak Ł. Effect of supplementation with chokeberry juice on the inflammatory status and markers of iron metabolism in rowers. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2014 Oct 1;11(1):1–10.
18. Kim YA, Keogh JB, Clifton PM. Polyphenols and Glycemic Control. Nutrients [Internet]. 2016 Jan 5 [cited 2023 Mar 30];8(1). Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26742071/
19. Yamane T, Kozuka M, Wada-Yoneta M, Sakamoto T, Nakagaki T, Nakano Y, et al. Aronia juice suppresses the elevation of postprandial blood glucose levels in adult healthy Japanese. Clin Nutr Exp. 2017 Apr 1;12:20–6.
20. WHO. https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/mortality-and-global-health-estimates/ghe-leading-causes-of-death. 2023. WHO Global health estimates: Leading causes of death.
21. Hernáez Á, Remaley AT, Farràs M, Fernández-Castillejo S, Subirana I, Schröder H, et al. Olive oil polyphenols decrease LDL concentrations and LDL atherogenicity in men in a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Nutrition [Internet]. 2015 Aug 1 [cited 2025 Jan 11];145(8):1692–7. Available from: http://jn.nutrition.org/article/S0022316622088113/fulltext
22. Tasic N, Jakovljevic VLJ, Mitrovic M, Djindjic B, Tasic D, Dragisic D, et al. Black chokeberry Aronia melanocarpa extract reduces blood pressure, glycemia and lipid profile in patients with metabolic syndrome: a prospective controlled trial. Mol Cell Biochem. 2021 Jul 1;476(7):2663–73.
23. Istas G, Wood E, Le Sayec M, Rawlings C, Yoon J, Dandavate V, et al. Effects of aronia berry (poly)phenols on vascular function and gut microbiota: A double-blind randomized controlled trial in adult men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2019 Aug 1;110(2):316–29.
24. Mithul Aravind S, Wichienchot S, Tsao R, Ramakrishnan S, Chakkaravarthi S. Role of dietary polyphenols on gut microbiota, their metabolites and health benefits. Vol. 142, Food Research International. Elsevier Ltd; 2021.
25. Corrêa TAF, Rogero MM, Hassimotto NMA, Lajolo FM. The Two-Way Polyphenols-Microbiota Interactions and Their Effects on Obesity and Related Metabolic Diseases. 2019;6:188. Available from: www.frontiersin.org
26. Osakabe N, Fushimi T, Fujii Y. Hormetic response to B-type procyanidin ingestion involves stress-related neuromodulation via the gut-brain axis: Preclinical and clinical observations. Vol. 9, Frontiers in Nutrition. Frontiers Media S.A.; 2022.
27. Williamson G, Clifford MN. Colonic metabolites of berry polyphenols: The missing link to biological activity? Vol. 104, British Journal of Nutrition. 2010.
28. Park S, Kim J Il, Lee I, Lee S, Hwang MW, Bae JY, et al. Aronia melanocarpa and its components demonstrate antiviral activity against influenza viruses. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2013 Oct 11;440(1):14–9.
29. Frank B, Conzelmann C, Weil T, Groß R, Jungke P, Eggers M, et al. Antiviral activity of plant juices and green tea against SARS-CoV-2 and influenza virus in vitro 1 2. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.10.30.360545
30. Handeland M, Grude N, Torp T, Slimestad R. Black chokeberry juice (Aronia melanocarpa) reduces incidences of urinary tract infection among nursing home residents in the long term-a pilot study. Nutrition Research. 2014;34(6):518–25.
31. Sengupta K, Alluri K V, Golakoti T, Gottumukkala G V, Raavi J, Kotchrlakota L, et al. A Randomized, Double Blind, Controlled, Dose Dependent Clinical Trial to Evaluate the Efficacy of a Proanthocyanidin Standardized Whole Cran-berry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) Powder on Infections of the Urinary Tract. Vol. 7, Current Bioactive Compounds. 2011.
32. Gravesteijn E, Mensink RP, Plat J. Effects of nutritional interventions on BDNF concentrations in humans: a systematic review. Vol. 25, Nutritional Neuroscience. Taylor and Francis Ltd.; 2022. p. 1425–36.